Maize Crop Full General Practices

BINOMIAL NAME	ZEA MAYS L
KINGDOM	PLANTAE
FAMILY	POACEAE
SUBFAMILY	POACEAE
GENUS	ZEA
SPECIES	Z. MAYS

Type of corn:

Corn variation may be artificially defined according to kernel type likes: dent, flint, flour, sweet, pop and pod corn etc. Except for pod corn, these divisions are based on the quality, quantity and pattern of endosperm composition in the kernel and are not indicative of natural relationships (Brown and Darrah, 1985).

Dent Corn:

Dent corn is characterized by the presence of corneous, horny endosperm at the sides and back of the kernels, while the central core is a soft, floury endosperm extending to the crown of the endosperm. It collapses to produce a distinct indentation on drying. Degree of denting varies with its genetic background. Dent corn is used primarily as animal food, but also serves as a raw material for industry and as staple food. It is still an important human food and industrial material, entering into many specialized products via the dry- or wet-milling industry. However, white dent often receives a premium price in the dry milling industry, where it utilized for certain human food products because of its whiter starch.

Flint Corn:

The flint corns mostly have a thick, hard, vitreous (glassy) or corneous endosperm layer surrounded by small, soft granular centre. The relative amounts of soft and corneous starch, however, vary in different varieties. Generally, the kernels are smooth and rounded, and the ears are long and slender with a comparatively small number of rows or kernels. In temperate zones, flint corn often matures earlier, germinates better has more spring vigor, more tillers and fewer prop roots than dent strains.

Flour Corn:

This is one of the oldest types of corn, tracing back to the ancient Aztecs and Incas. American and Indians used to ground the soft kernels for flour. Floury maize types have soft starch throughout, with practically no hard, vitreous endosperm and thus are opaque in kernel phenotype. Kernels tend to shrink uniformly upon drying, so usually have little or no denting. When dry, they are easy to grind, but may mold on the mature ear in wet areas.

Sweet Corn:

In sweet corn, the sugary gene prevents or retards the normal conversion of sugar into starch during endosperm development, and the kernel accumulates a water-soluble polysaccharide called “phytoglycogen.” As a result, the dry, sugary kernels are wrinkled and glassy. The higher content of water-soluble polysaccharide adds a texture quality factor in addition to sweetness.

Popcorn:

Popcorns are perhaps the most primitive of the surviving races of maize. This corn type is characterized by a very hard, corneous endosperm containing only a small portion of soft starch. Popcorns are essentially small-kernelled flint types. The kernels may be either pointed (rice-like) or round (pearl-like). Some of the more recently developed popcorns have thick pericarps (seed coats), while some primitive semi-popcorns, such as the Argentine popcorns, have thin pericarps.

Pod Corn:

Pod corn (tunicate maize) is more of an ornamental type. The major gene involved (Tu) produces long glumes enclosing each kernel individually, which also occurs in many other grasses. The ear is also enclosed in husks, as with other types of corn. Homozygous pod corn usually is highly self-sterile and the ordinary type of pod corn is heterozygous. Pod corn may be dent, sweet, waxy, pop, flint or floury in endosperm characteristics. It is merely a curiosity and is not grown commercially.

Waxy corn:

Waxy corn name derives from the waxy appearance of the endosperm exposed in a cleanly cut cross-section. Common corn starch is approximately 73 percent amylopectin and 27 percent amylose, whereas waxy starch is composed entirely with amylopectin, which is the branched molecular form of starch. Ordinary corn starch stains blue with 2 percent potassium iodide solution, whereas waxy cornstarch stains a reddish brown. The waxy gene also expresses itself in the pollen with this staining reaction, which is an aid in breeding. Products made from waxy corn are used by the food industry as stabilizers and thickeners for puddings pie fillings, sauces, gravies, retorted foods, salad dressings, etc. Other waxy products are used as remoistening adhesives in the manufacture of gummed tape, in adhesives and in the paper industry. Waxy grain is also grown as a feed for dairy cattle and livestock.

High-amylose corn:

Amylo-maize is the generic name for corn that has an amylose content higher than 50 percent. The endosperm mutant amylose extender (ae) was first observed by R. P. Bear in 1950, which increases the amylose content of the endosperm to about 60 percent in many dent backgrounds. Modifying factors alter the amylase contents as well as desirable agronomic characteristics of the grain. The amylose-extender gene expression is characterized by a tarnished, translucent, sometimes semifull kernel appearance. The starch from high-amylose corn is used in the textile industry, in gum candies (where its tendency to form a gel aids production), and as an adhesive in the manufacture of corrugated cardboard.

Introduction 

In India, maize is the third most important food crops after rice and wheat. According to advance estimate it is cultivated in 8.7 m ha mainly during Kharif season which covers 80% area. Maize in India, contributes nearly 9 % in the national food basket and more than Rs. 100 billion to the agricultural GDP at current prices apart from the generating employment to over 100 million man-days at the farm and downstream agricultural and industrial sectors. In addition to staple food for human being and quality feed for animals, maize serves as a basic raw material as an ingredient to thousands of industrial products that includes starch, oil, protein, alcoholic beverages, food sweeteners, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, film, textile, gum, package and paper industries etc. The maize is cultivated throughout the year in all states of the country for various purposes including grain, fodder, green cobs, sweet corn, baby corn, pop-corn in peri-urban areas. The predominant maize growing states that contributes more than 80 % of the total maize production are Andhra Pradesh (20.9 %), Karnataka (16.5 %), Rajasthan (9.9 %), Maharashtra (9.1 %), Bihar (8.9 %), Uttar Pradesh (6.1 %), Madhya Pradesh (5.7 %), Himachal Pradesh (4.4 %). Apart from these states maize is also grown in Jammu and Kashmir and North-Eastern states. Hence, the maize has emerged as important crop in the non-traditional regions i.e. peninsular India as the state like Andhra Pradesh which ranks 5th in area (0.79 m ha) has recorded the highest production (4.14 m t) and productivity (5.26 t ha-1) in the country although the productivity in some of the districts of Andhra Pradesh is more or equal to the USA.

Root:

The root system of maize can be divided into an embryonic root system (Abbe and Stein, 1954) consisting of a single primary root and a variable number of seminal roots, and a post‐embryonic root system which is made up by shoot‐borne roots.

Brace roots:

Maize has specialized brace roots that develop in a whorl from above-ground stem nodes (B lizard & Sparks, 2020). The uppermost whorls of brace roots may remain aerial with the lower whorls penetrating into the soil.

Tiller:

Tillers are vegetative or reproductive shoots that grow from the base of grass plants. Corn tillers are a normal physiological process like those in small grains. Although tillers can be perceived to be less desirable in corn, the overall effect of tillers is usually neutral.

Leaf sheath:

An elongated, cylindrical structure that encloses younger parts of the shoot. Its major function is to protect younger shoots inside of it and to support the whole plant, which explains why there are very few chloroplasts found in the sheath mesophyll.

Leaf Blade:

The maize leaf is composed of a stem-gripping proximal sheath and a long distal blade joined together by an auricle and membranous ligule. This hinge-like region allows the blade and supporting midrib to bend away from the stem, thereby affecting plant architecture and yield.

Ear:

The ear is a spike, consisting of a central stem on which tightly packed rows of flowers grow. These develop into fruits containing the edible seeds. In corn (maize), an ear is protected by leaves called husks.

Silk:

 Corn silk is the long, thread-like strands of plant material that grow underneath the husk of a fresh ear of corn. These shiny, thin fibres aid the pollination and growth of corn, but they’re also used in traditional herbal medicine practices.

Tassel Internode:

The last stem internode, or the peduncle, elongates and pushes the tassel out of top leaf sheath. VT is the last vegetative stage and occurs when the last (bottom) tassel branch is visible.

Tassel:

Maize tassels are the male flowers of maize plants. The emergence of tassels indicates the arrival of the reproductive stage. During this stage, the total tassel number is an important cue to monitor the growth status of maize plants. It is closely related to the growth stage [1] and yield potential [2].

Anthers:

In maize, each male floret has three anthers, each with four lobes. These four lobes have similar structures and are attached to a central core connected to the vascular tissue. After morphogenesis, each anther differentiates into a four-layered structure.

Growth stages of maize:

Vegetative stage:

Emerging: 

 Shoot (coleoptile) has emerged from the soil 

First leaf:

 Lowest leaf has a visible collar; this leaf has a rounded tip.

Second leaf:

Two of the lowest leaves have a visible collar, the second and subsequent leaves have pointed tips.

n^th leaf – “n” leaf collars present, most corn hybrids produce between 18 to 21 leaves.

Tassel:

 Lowest branch of the tassel is visible.

Reproductive Stage:

Silk:

One or more silks extends outside of husk leaves.

Blister:

Kernels resemble “blisters” with clear liquid.

Milk:

Kernels filled with “milky” fluid.

Dough:

Inside the kernels are a “doughy” consistency.

Dent:

Dent forms on kernel and milk line progresses towards kernel tip.

Physiological maturity:

Kernels at maximum dry matter accumulation; a “black layer” will form at kernel base (2-3 days after physiological maturity).

Climate:

• Maize is grown in temperatures between 18°C and 27°C during the day and around 14°C during the night. But the most important factor is the 140 frost-free days. Maize is grown mostly in regions having annual rainfall between 60 cm to 110 cm.

The critical mean temperature range:

Germination and seedling growth         : 26° to 30°C

Vegetative Phase                                   : 34°C

Tasselling Phase                                    : 21° to 30°C

Reproductive Phase                               : 32°C 

Suitable Soils with texture ranges         : Sandy and clay and clay-loam soil

Suitable pH range                                  : 6 to 6.5

Temperature:

• Maize is grown in temperatures between 18°C and 27°C during the day and around 14°C during the night. But the most important factor is the 140 frost-free days. The crop is very susceptible to frost; therefore, its cultivation in temperate latitudes is limited.

Rainfall:

• Maize is grown mostly in regions having annual rainfall between 60 cm to 110 cm. But it is also grown in areas having rainfall of about 40 cm.

Suitable Soil requirement:

• Fertile well-drained Loamy soil or simply red clay loam free of coarse elements and full off nitrogen are ideal soils for maize cultivation. Maize can be grown on wide range of soils including loamy sand to clay loam. Definitely depleted plains are effective suited to the cultivation, even though it grows up in various hilly zones equally. Soils with fine organic matter containing good water holding capacity with pH ranging from 5.5-7.5 are required to increased yield. Heavy clay soil is not suitable for cultivation.
• Soil test is necessary to know deficiency of any nutrient in the soil.

Loamy sand:

Loamy soil is the mixture of sand, clay and silt. It contains more moisture, nutrients and humus compared to sandy soil and better drainage compared to clay and silt soil. It has the right water holding capacity needed for the growth of plants.

Clay Loam:

Clay loam is a soil mixture that contains more clay than other types of rock or minerals. A loam is a soil mixtures that is named for the type of soil that is present in the greatest amount. The particles of clay are very small, which is one of its most important characteristics. The relative percentages of sand, silt, and clay are what give soil its texture. A clay loam texture soil, for example, has nearly equal parts of sand, slit, and clay. These textural separates result from the weathering process. This is an image comparing the sizes of sand, silt, and clay together.

Soil treatment:

Apply organic manure like FYM/compost/well-decomposed press mud (about 8-10 tonnes/acre). Quantity of organic manure could be adjusted in such a way as to supply 112 kg N/acre through one or more sources depending on their N content. Trichoderma and Pseudomonas (each 1kg/acre) and Decomposing cultures can be mixed with the organic manures. This will improve the soil fertility to realize higher yields.

Benefits of soil treatment:

Water benefits:

1. Healthy soil acts as a sponge: more rainwater is absorbed and stored in the ground, where it recharges groundwater and aquifers.
2. Healthy soil prevents run-off and erosion, and reduces evaporation.
3. Healthy soil improves water quality by filtering pollutants.

Nutritious food:

1. Healthy soil increases the nutritional value of food and forage.
2. Healthy soil provides plants with the nutrition they need and strengthens plants natural resistance to pests and diseases.

Economic security:

1. Healthy soil improves farm productivity and provides stability.
2. Healthy soil cuts down on inputs, which increases profit.
3. Healthy soil helps withstand extreme weather, floods and drought.

Environmental and health benefits:

1. Healthy soil helps reverse global warming by absorbing carbon from the atmosphere where it acts as a greenhouse gas.
2. Healthy soil provides habitat for soil microbes to flourish.

Healthy soil supports greater biodiversity and species stability

Land Preparation:

• For cultivation selected land should be free from weeds and remains of previously grown crop. Plough the land to bring the soil to fine tilth. It may take 6 to 7 plough. Apply 4-6 tons/acre of well decomposed cow dung across the field, also apply 10 Azospirillum packets in field. Prepared furrow and ridges with 45 cm to 50cm spacing.

Implements used in Soil and Land preparation:

Disc Plough:

The disc plough bears little resemblance to the common mould-board plough. A large, revolving, concave steel disc replaces the share and the mould-board. The disc turns the furrow slice to one side with a scooping action. The usual size of the disc is 60 cm in diameter and this turns a 35 to 30 cm furrow slice. The disc plough is more suitable for land in which there is much fibrous growth of weeds as the disc cuts and incorporates the weeds. The disc plough works well in soils free from stones. No harrowing is necessary to break the clods of the upturned soil as in a mould board plough.

Tractor Drawn Cultivator:

Cultivator is an implement used for finer operations like breaking clods and working the soil to a fine tilth in the preparation of seedbed. Cultivator is also known as tiller or tooth harrow. It is used to further loosen the previously ploughed land before sowing. It is also used to destroy weeds that germinate after ploughing. Cultivator has two rows of tynes attached to its frame in staggered form. The main object of providing two rows and staggering the position of tynes is to provide clearance between tynes so that clods and plant residues can freely pass through without blocking. Provision is also made in the frame by drilling holes so that tynes can be set close or apart as desire. The number of tynes ranges from 7 to 13. The shares of the tynes can be replaced when they are worn out.

Laser land leveller:

Laser Land Leveller is a more advanced technique for smoothing the land surface from its average height with a certain degree of the desired slope using a guided laser beam throughout the field. Laser Land Levelling is an important technology for good agronomic, highest possible yield, crop-management, and water-saving.

Advantages of soil preparation:

• It loosens the soil.
• It aerates the soil.
• It prevents soil erosion.
• It allows easy penetration of roots into the soil.

Disadvantages of soil preparation:

The downside of tilling is that it destroys the natural soil structure, which makes soil more prone to compaction. By exposing a greater surface area to air and sunlight, tilling reduces soil’s moisture-retaining ability and causes a hard crust to form on the soil surface.

Tillage and crop establishment

Tillage and crop establishment is the key for achieving the optimum plant stand that is the main driver of the crop yield. Though the crop establishment is a series of events (seeding, germination, emergence and final establishment) that depends on interactions of seed, seedling depth, soil moisture, method of sowing, machinery etc. but, the method of planting plays a vital role for better establishment of crop under a set of growing situation. Maize is mainly sown directly through seed by using different methods of tillage & establishment but during winters where fields are not remain vacant in time (till November), transplanting can be done successfully by raising the nursery. However, the sowing method (establishment) mainly depends on several factors viz the complex interaction over time of seeding, soil, climate, biotic, machinery and management season, cropping system, etc. Recently, resource conservation technologies (RCTs) that include several practices viz. zero tillage, minimum tillage, surface seeding etc. Had come in practice in various maize based cropping system and these are cost effective and environment friendly. 

Methods of sowing:

Raised bed (ridge) planting: 

Generally the raised bed planting is considered as best planting method for maize during monsoon and winter seasons both under excess moisture as well as limited water availability/rain-fed conditions. Sowing/planting should be done on the southern side of the east-west ridges/beds, which helps in good germination. Planting should be done at proper spacing. Preferably, the raised bed planter having inclined plate, cupping or roller type seed metering systems should be used for planting that facilitates in placement of seed and fertilizers at proper place in one operation that helps in getting good crop stand, higher productivity and resource use efficiency. Using raised bed planting technology, 20-30 % irrigation water can be saved with higher productivity. Moreover, under temporary excess soil moisture/water logging due to heavy rains, the furrows will act as drainage channels and crop can be saved from excess soil moisture stress. For realizing the full potential of the bed planting technology, permanent beds are advisable wherein sowing can be done in a single pass without any preparatory tillage. Permanent beds are more beneficial under excess soil moisture situations as the infiltration rate is much higher and crop can be saved from the temporary water logging injury.

Zero-till planting:

Maize can be successfully grown without any primary tillage under no-till situation with less cost of cultivation, higher farm profitability and better resource use efficiency. Under such condition one should ensure good soil moisture at sowing and seed and fertilizers should be placed in band using zero-till seed-cum-fertilizer planter with furrow opener as per the soil texture and field conditions. The technology is in place with large number of farmers particularly under rice-maize and maize-wheat systems in peninsular and eastern India. However, use of appropriate planter having suitable furrow opener and seed metering system is the key of success of the no-till technology.  

Conventional till flat planting: 

Under heavy weed infestation where chemical/herbicidal weed management is uneconomical in no-till and also for rain-fed areas where  survival of crop depends on conserved soil moisture, in such situations flat planting can be done using seed-cum-fertilizer planters.  

Furrow planting: 

To prevent evaporative losses of water during spring season from the soil under flat as well as raised bed planting is higher and hence crop suffers due to moisture stress. Under such situation/condition, it is always advisable to grow maize in furrows for proper growth, seed setting and higher productivity.

Transplanting: 

Under intensive cropping systems where it is not possible to vacate the field on time for planting of winter maize, the chances of delayed planting exists and due to delay planting crop establishment is a problem due to low temperature so under such conditions transplanting is an alternative and well established technique for winter maize. Therefore, for the situation where fields are vacated during December-January, it is advisable to grow nursery and transplant the seedlings in furrows and apply irrigation for optimum crop establishment. Use of this technique helps in maintenance of temporal isolation in corn seed production areas for production of pure and good quality seed as well as quality protein maize grain. For planting of one hectare, 700 m² nursery area is required and the nursery should be raised during second fortnight of November. The age of seedlings for transplanting should be 30-40 days old (depending on the growth) and transplant in the month of December-January in furrows to obtain higher productivity. 

Maize Varieties and their Characters

Sl. No.	Variety / Hybrids	Suitable for Rainfed / Irrigated conditions	Duration (in days)	Yield q/acre	Characters
Hybrids
1.	DHM – 103	Sutable for Irrigated conditions	105-120	22-25	Tolerant to leaf blight and Stem rot diseases
2.	DHM – 105	Sutable for Irrigated conditions	105-120	25-30	Tolerant to leaf blight and wilt
3.	DHM – 1	Sutable for Irrigated conditions	85-90	18-20	Short duration hybrid, tolerant to leaf blight disease
4.	Trisulatha	Sutable for Irrigated conditions	105-120	25-30	Tolerant to leaf blight and wilt diseases
5.	DHM – 107	Sutable for Irrigated conditions	88- 95	22-25	Medium duration hybrid. Tolerant to leaf blight and wilt
6.	DHM – 109	Sutable for Irrigated conditions	85-90	22-25	Short duration hybrid. Tolerant to leaf blight and wilt
Synthetics / composits
7.	Aswani / Harsha / Varun	Sutable for Irrigated conditions	90-105	18-20	Aswani : Tolerant to StemborerHarsha tolerant to Stemborer, leaf blight and wiltVarun tolerant to drought.
Special Varieties
8.	Amber Pop Corn	Sutable for Irrigated conditions	95-105	10-14	For Pop Corn suitable
9.	Madhuri (Sweet Corn)	Sutable for Irrigated conditions	65-70	30-35 thousand fresh cobs	Sweet Corn. 30-36% sugars. Suitable for table purpose after boiling.
10.	Priya Sweet Corn	Sutable for Irrigated conditions	70-75	30-35 thousand fresh cobs	Sweet Corn. 30-36% sugars. Suitable for table purpose after boiling. Cob size bigger than Madhuri variety

Sowing and Seed rate:

Time of sowing:

• In kharif season, crop is sown in month of May end to June Corresponding with the onset of monsoon. Rabi crops are sown during mid-october to November. Plantation of baby corn can be done all the year round, except December and January. Kharif and rabi season are best for sweet corn sowing.

Spacing:

To obtain higher yield along with resource-use efficiency, optimum plant spacing is the key factor.

1. For kharif maize: use spacing of 60×20 cm.
2. For Rabi maize: use spacing of 60×20 cm.
3. Sweet corn: use spacing of 60×20 cm spacing.
4. Baby corn: Use 60×20 cm or 60×15 cm spacing.
5. Popcorn: Use 50×15 cm spacing.
6. Fodder: use spacing of 30×10 cm spacing

Sowing Depth:

• Seed should be sown at depth of 3-4 cm. 
• For sweet corn cultivation keep depth of sowing to 2.5 cm.

Seed Rate:

Purpose, seed size, season, plant type, sowing method these factor affect seed rate. 
1) For kharif/rabi maize: use seed rate of 8-10 kg/acre, 
2) Sweet corn: use seed rate of 8 kg/acre
3) Baby corn: 16 kg/acre seed rate.
4) Popcorn: 7 kg/acre seed rate.
5) Fodder: 20 kg/acre seed rate.

Seed Treatment

To protect the maize crop from seed and major soil borne diseases and insect-pests, seed treatment with fungicides and insecticides before sowing is advisable/ recommended as per the below given details.  

Disease/insect-pest	Fungicide/Pesticide	Rate of application(g kg-1 seed)
Turcicum Leaf Blight,, Banded Leaf andSheath Blight, Maydis Leaf Blight	Bavistin + Captan in 1:1 ratio	2.0
BSMD	Apran 35 SD	4.0
Pythium Stalk Rot	Captan	2.5
Termite and shoot fly	Imidachlorpit	4.0

Intercropping: 

• Pea can be taken as intercrop in maize plant. For that take one row of pea between maize crops. In autumn sugarcane and maize can also be intercropped. Sow one row of maize plant after two row of sugarcane.

Fertilizer Requirement:

Season	Fertilizer (Kg/ha)	Time of application
Sowing	Vegetative phase	Corn phase
Kharif	Nitrogen	50	40	30
Phosphorus	60	–	–
Potassium	50	50	50
Rabi	Nitrogen	60	50	40
Phosphorus	75	–	–
Potassium	50	–	–
Summer	Nitrogen	50	50	–
Phosphorus	40	–	–
Potassium	30	–	–

Weed control:

• Weeds are the serious problem in Maize, particularly during kharif/monsoon season they competes with maize for nutrient and causes yield loss upto 35%. Therefore, timely weed management is needed for achieving higher yield. Take atleast one or two hand weeding in maize crop. First 20-25 days after sowing and second when on 40-45 days after sowing. If weed infestation is high, spray with Atrazine @500gm per 200 Ltr. of water. After weeding, apply fertilizer as top dressing and carry out earthing up operation.
• Apply irrigation immediately after sowing. Based upon soil type, on third or fourth day give lifesaving irrigation. In rainy season, if rain is satisfactory then it is not needed.
•  Avoid water stagnation in early phase of crop and provide good drainage facility. Crop required less irrigation during early stage, 20 to 30 days after sowing afterwards it required irrigation once in a week. 
• Seedling, knee height stage, flowering and grain feeling are the most sensitive stage for irrigation. Water stress at this stage cause huge loss in yield. In case of water scarcity, irrigate alternate furrow. It will save water also.

Major Insect-Pest of maize:

S.No.	Name of Insect	Scientific name	Infected crop Stage
1	Stem Borer	Chilo partellus	Tasselling Stage
2	Pink Stem Borer	Sesamia inferens	Vegetative Stage ( V5 Stage)
3	Maize Cut Worm	Mythimna separata	Growth Tip and Developing Tassel ( V5 stage)
4	Cob Worm/Earworm	Helicoverpa armigera	Silking Stage
5	Aphid	Rhopalosiphum maidis	Corn Tasselling
6	Shoot Bug	Peregrinus maidis	Vegetative Stage (V4 stage)
7	Maize Shoot Fly	Atherigona orientalis	Seedling Stage

Stem Borer: 

Symptoms:

• The larva yellowish brown with reddish brown head and prothoracic shield and measures 25 mm long with series of black dots Adult is a medium sized straw coloured moth.

Management:

• Cultural Control: Destruction of stubbles, stalks, weeds and alternate host of stem borer helps in minimizing the pest build-up in the area. Removal of dead hearts and infected plants showing early pin holes damage also help in controlling this pest.
• Mechanical Control: Clipping of lower leaves of Maize (up to 4th).
• Biological Control: Release eggs of Trichogramma chilonis @ 20,000/acre at weekly interval 4-5 times starting with complete germination of the crop checks this pest effectively.
• Chemical Control: Spary of Fenvalerate 20% EC @ 120-160 ml or Cypermethrin 10% EC @ 220-300ml and Deltamethrin 2.8% EC @ 50-60 ml  dissolve in 250-300 lit.of water/ acre after notice this pest.

Pink Stem Borer:

Symptoms: 

• Caterpillar is smooth and pink coloured. Moth is medium sized stoutly built having straw coloured forewings with dark brown longitudinal streak in the middle of the wing.
• Larvae congregate inside the leaf whorls and feed on the central leaves causing typical ‘pin holes’ and later bore into the central shoot and severe feeding results in drying of the central shoot called dead heart formation or dead heart symptoms in the early stage of the crop.

Management:

• Cultural Control- Collection and burrying stubble and stalks or ploughing and destroying crop residue, removal of infested plant parts or infested plants through hoeing are recommended. Intercropping maize with cowpea reduces the incidence of this insect.
• Mechanical Control- Bird perches @ 10 in number/ acre should be erected for facilitating field visits of predatory birds. 
• Biological Control- Release eggs of Trichogramma minutum @ 20,000/acre at weekly interval 4-5 times starting with complete germination of the crop checks this pest effectively.
• Chemical Control- Spray of Cypermethrin 10% EC @ 220-300ml dissolve in 250-300 lit. of water/acre.

Cob worm/Earworm:

Symptoms:

• Adult is a medium sized, brownish yellow moth, A prominent black spots on the fore wings and Broad black patch on the outer margin of hind wing.
• Caterpillar also feed partially on developing grains and bored holes are plugged with excreta.
• Caterpillars are also feeds on tender leaves for a short time.

Management:

• Cultural Control- Growing intercrops such as cowpea, onion, coriander, urdbean in 1:2 ratio. 
• Mechanical Control- Bird perches @ 8-10 in Nos./ acre should be erected for facilitating field visits of predatory birds.
• Physical Control– Pheromone traps @ 4-5 in number/acre can be installed for monitoring borer activity. Replace the lures with fresh lures after every 20-25 day interval. 
• Biological Control- Spray HNPV @ 100-120 LE/acre 2-3 times at weekly interval in the evening hours and addition of Teepal 0.1% in the solution gives better results. Inundatively release of T. pretiosum @ 0.4 lakh/acre 4-5 times from flower initiation stage at weekly intervals.
• Chemical Control- Quinalphos 25% EC @ 260 ml or Decamethrin 2.8% EC @ 180 ml or Cypermethrin 10 % EC @ 300 ml or Fenvalerate 20 EC @ 330 ml dissolve in 250-300 lit. of water/acre.

Maize Shoot Fly:

Symptoms: 

• Maggot are legless, tapering towards head, pale yellow, small. Adult Small grey coloured fly.
• Maggots on hatching from the eggs bore into the central shoots of seedlings and kill the growing point, producing “dead hearts”.

Management:

• Cultural Control- Sowing within 10-15 days after onset of monsoon reduces the shoot fly incidence. Synchronisation in sowing also helps in reducing shoofly incidence. Plough after harvest to remove and destroy the stubbles. 
• Mechanical Control– Removal of the seedlings with dead hearts and keep the optimum plant stand in the field. 
• Physical Control– Use of polythene fish meal trap @4-5/acre.
• Biological Control– Encourage natural enemies like eulophid (Tetrastichus nyemitawus) and chalcid wasp (Callitula bipartius) @1-2 cards/acre which are larval parasites of this fly. 
• Chemical Control– Seed soaking with Dimethoate 30% EC @ 1ml/lit. of water, solution for 12 hours and dry it in shade before sowing or seed treatment with Imidacloprid @ 1ml/kg seed for control shoot fly infestation. Apply Quinalphos 5G @ 8 kg mix with 12 Kg send /acre.

Aphid:

Symptoms:

• Aphids-Adults are minute, soft bodied, oblong, light green or pale yellow Cornicles. Nymphs are Smaller and greenish.
• Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from plant especially from the leaves.
•  As a result the leaves turn yellow and in case of heavy infestation the plants remain stunted. 
• Their injury causes oozing of sap which crystallizes on evaporation forming sugary material called “Sugary Disease”.

Management:

• Cultural Control- Balance use of fertilisers, excess of nitrogen and deficiency of potash increase aphid infestation. 
• Mechanical Control- Remove aphid infested part at early stage of infestation.
• Biological Control- Release larvae of Crysoperla  carnea @ 20,000/acre.
• Chemical Control- Apply any one systemic insecticides like- Oxydemetons Methyl (Metasystox) 25% EC @150 ml or Dimethoate (Rogor) 30% EC @ 160 ml or Imidacloprid (Confidor) 17.8% SL @ 40-50 ml or Thiamethoxam 25% WG @ 40g dissolve in 250-300  lit. of water/acre when aphid population reaches or crosses -Economic threshold Level.

Shoot Bug:

Symptoms:

• Adult are small, active light brown or dark brown in colour with transparent wings and movable spur on the hind legs.
• Adults and nymphs suck the sap from the plants
• The attacked plants become unhealthy, stunted and yellow.
• The leaves wither from top downwards.
• Cob formation is inhibited and the plants die if attack is severe.
• Honeydew secreted by the bug causes growth of sooty mould on leaves.

Management:

• Cultural Control- Apply balanced fertilizers having adequate N and P to promote better plant growth, that results in reduced damage by shoot bug. Apply manures and fertilizers as per soil test recommendations. After harvest, plough to remove and destroy the stubbles.
• Biological Control- Spray 5% Neem seed kernel extract @ 1000 ml/ 10 lit. of water.
• Chemical Control- Spray Dimethoate 30% EC @ 200 ml or Methyl Demeton 25% EC @ 200 ml dissolve in 250-300 lit. of water/acre.

Major Disease of Maize:

S.No.	Name of Disease	Causal Organism	Infected Crop Stage
1	Downey Mildew	Peronosclerospora sorghi	Vegetative Stage (V3)
2	Leaf Blight	Helminthosporium maydis	Vegetative Stage (V4)
3	Common Rust	Puccinia sorghi	Vegetative Stage (V3 & V7 )
4	Charcoal Rot	Macrophamina phaseolina	Grain Filling Stage
5	Bacterial Stalk Rot	Erwinia dissolvens	Tassel Emergence
6	Brown Spot of Maize	Physoderma maydis	Vegetative Stages (V3-V9)
7	Head Smut of Maize	Sorosporum reilianum	Maturity Stage

Downey Mildew:

Symptoms:

• Chlorosis, white stripes, stunting with downy fungal growth on both leaf surfaces are the characteristic symptoms. Malformation of tassels in infected plants.

Management:

• Cultural Control- Destruction of plant debris. Removal and destruction of collateral hosts. Grow resistant hybrids like DHM-1, DHM-103, DMR-5 and Ganaga II. Deep summer ploughing. Crop rotation with pulses.
• Biological Control- Soil application of Pseudomonas fluorescens or Trichoderma viride @ 1 kg / acre + 25 kg of well decomposed FYM (mix 10 days before application) or sand at 30 days after sowing.
• Chemical Control- Seed treatment with Metalaxyl-M 31.8% ES @ 2.4 ml/kg seed. Spray of Mancozeb 75% WP or Ziram 80 % WP or Zineb 75 % WP @600-800g dissolve in 250-300 lit. of water/acre starting from 20th day after sowing. 

Leaf Blight:

Symptoms: 

• The fungus affects the crop at a young stage. Small yellowish round to oval spots are seen on the leaves. The spots gradually increase in area into bigger elliptical spots and are straw to greyish brown in the centre with dark brown margins.

Management:

• Cultural Control- Grow resistant cultivers – Deccan, VL 42, Prabhat, KH-5901, PRO-324, PRO-339, ICI-701, F- 7013, F-7012, PEMH 1, PEMH 2, PEMH 3, Paras, Sartaj, Deccan 109, COH-6.
• Chemical Control- Treat the seeds with Captan 50 % WP or Thiram 75 % WP @ 2g/kg. Spray Mancozeb 75% WP @ 600-800g or Captafol 80% WP @400g or Matalaxyl 35 % WS 400g dissolve in 250-300 lit. of water/acre  at 10 days interval after first appearance of the disease.

Common Rust: 

Symptoms:

• Circular to oval, elongated cinnamon-brown powdery pustules are scattered over both surface of the leaves. As the plant matures, the pustules become brown to black owing to the replacement of red uredospores by black teliospores.

Management:

• Cultural Control- Plant hybrids like Deccan, ganga-5, Deccan maize-103 and DHM-1 which are resistant to this disease.
• Biological Control- Soil application of Pseudomonas fluorescens or Trichoderma viride @ 1 kg / acre + 25 kg of well decomposed FYM (mix 10 days before application) or sand at 30 days after sowing.
• Chemical Control– Spray Mancozeb 75% WP @ 2.5g/lit. of water spray can be taken as soon as first symptoms are observed it can be repeated at 10 days interval till flowering.

Charcoal Rot:

Symptoms:

• The stalk of the infected plants can be recognized by greyish streak. The pith becomes shredded and greyish black minute sclerotia develop on the vascular bundles. Shredding of the interior of the stalk often causes stalks to break in the region of the crown. The crown region of the infected plant becomes dark in colour. Shredding of root bark and disintegration of root system are the common features.

Management:

• Cultural Control– Long crop rotation with crops that are not natural host of the fungus. Field sanitation. Irrigate the crops at the time of ear head emergence to maturity. Grow disease resistant varieties, viz., DHM 103, DHM 105 and Ganga Safed. Apply potash @ 32 kg/acre in endemic areas.
• Biological Control- Soil application of Pseudomonas fluorescens or Trichoderma viride @ 1 kg /acre + 50 kg of well decomposed FYM (mix 10 days before application) or sand at 30 days after sowing.
• Chemical Control- Treat the seeds with Carbendazim 50 % WP or Captan 50 % WP @ 2g/kg.

Bacterial Stalk Rot:

Symptoms:

• The basal internodes develop soft rot and give a water soaked appearance. A mild sweet fermenting odour accompanies such rotting. Leaves some time show signs of wilting and affected plants topple down in few days. Ears and shank may also show rot. They fail to develop further and the ears hang down simply from the plant.

Management:

• Cultural Control- Use of disease resistance varieties, i.e. Hybrids Ganga Safed‐2, DHM 103. Sanitation‐ removal of infected crop residues. Avoid water logging and poor drainage.
• Chemical Control- Three application of Bleaching Powder 10% @6.7 kg/acre at the time of sowing, earthing up and tesseling stage.

Brown Spot of maize:

Symptoms:

• Water soaked lesions, which are oval, later turn into light green and finally brown. The symptoms can develop on the leaf blade, stalk, sheath, and husks. On the leaf blade, these lesions consist of small chlorotic round to oblong, yellowish to brown in color, spots, arranged as alternate bands of diseased and healthy tissue. On the leaf midrib, these lesions are circular and dark chocolate brown, distinctly different in appearance from those present on leaf blade. 

Management:

• Cultural Control- Use disease free seeds. Field sanitation-removal of collateral hosts and infected debris in the field. Use of soil amendments.
• Chemical Control– Treat the seeds with Captan 50 % WP or Thiram 75 % WP @ 2g/kg. Spray the crop in the main field twice with Mancozeb 75 WP @ 600- 800g dissolve 250-300 lit. of water/acre once after flowering and second spray at milky stage.

Head Smut of Maize:

Symptoms:

• Infection of the tassel may be limited to individual spikelets, or may cover it completely. Leaf-like formations emerge, forming unusual structures on infected tassels. No pollen is produced. Most commonly, affected ears are round or tear-drop shaped, lacking silks, and filled with black spores.

Management:

• Cultural Control- Rogue out –removal of smutted heads. Burn crop refuge in the field after harvesting is over. Grow varieties resistant to the disease like WH-542, HD-2329 etc.
• Chemical Control- Seed treatment with Vitavax 75% WP or Benlate 50 % WP @ 2.0 g/Kg seed or Propioconazole 25% EC @ 2ml/kg seed are used for seed treatment to reduce the pathogen infectivity. Prepare mixture by Mancozeb 75% WP @800g + Karathane 25% WP @ 800g dissolve in 250-300 liters water per acre. About three sprays should be given at an interval of 10-15 days.